Oropharyngeal cancer, a malignancy affecting the middle part of the throat, has increasingly been linked to persistent infection with high-risk strains of human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly HPV-16. Unlike traditional risk factors such as tobacco and alcohol use, HPV-related oropharyngeal cancer often arises in younger, otherwise healthy individuals and is now one of the most rapidly
Miosis during ocular surgery—particularly cataract procedures—poses significant surgical challenges. Intraoperative miosis refers to the constriction of the pupil that can occur during surgery despite initial pharmacologic dilation. It restricts visibility and access to intraocular structures, increasing the risk of complications such as capsular rupture, vitreous loss, and increased operative time. The primary mechanism involves the
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most widely prescribed medications for pain and inflammation. Despite their efficacy, they are a leading cause of gastric mucosal injury, leading to ulcers, gastrointestinal bleeding, and even perforation. NSAIDs inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX), particularly COX-1, reducing prostaglandin synthesis essential for mucosal defense. This reduction compromises gastric mucosal integrity, leading
Neutropenia is a significant and potentially life-threatening complication of cancer chemotherapy, characterized by a reduction in absolute neutrophil count (ANC), thereby compromising the body’s ability to combat infections. The condition is most commonly observed within 7 to 14 days after cytotoxic treatment, with severity classified as: If neutropenia is accompanied by fever (≥38.3°C once or
Nerve agents are among the most lethal chemical warfare substances, classified under organophosphorus compounds. They disrupt the nervous system by irreversibly inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, leading to the accumulation of acetylcholine, resulting in continuous nerve stimulation, paralysis, respiratory failure, and potentially death. The most notorious nerve agents include: These agents may be deployed through aerosol, vapor, or
Neonatal ophthalmia, also known as ophthalmia neonatorum, is an acute conjunctival infection occurring within the first 28 days of life. The condition is predominantly caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and less frequently, herpes simplex virus and bacterial flora from the birth canal. Without prompt intervention, ophthalmia neonatorum can lead to corneal ulceration, blindness, and
Group B Streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae, GBS) is a leading cause of severe infections in newborns, including sepsis, pneumonia, and meningitis. GBS is typically found in the lower gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts of healthy adults and may be vertically transmitted from mother to child during labor or delivery. Two clinical forms are recognized: Effective prevention of
Nausea and vomiting are protective reflexes triggered by the central nervous system in response to a wide variety of stimuli, including gastrointestinal irritation, vestibular dysfunction, toxins, medications, and psychological stress. The brainstem houses the vomiting center, which receives input from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ), vestibular system, and vagal afferents from the gastrointestinal tract. These
Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) refers to a group of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), including Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. These organisms are commonly found in the environment—particularly in water, soil, and dust—and are opportunistic pathogens. While MAC rarely causes illness in individuals with healthy immune systems, it poses significant risk to immunocompromised populations, particularly those with
Muscle cramps linked to heat exhaustion, commonly referred to as heat cramps, are painful, involuntary muscle spasms occurring during or after intense physical activity in hot conditions. They typically affect major muscle groups such as the calves, thighs, and shoulders. These cramps signal early-stage heat illness and indicate electrolyte imbalance due to excessive sweating. Prompt