Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) represents a predominant histological subtype of esophageal cancer, particularly in high-incidence regions across Asia and parts of Africa. It arises from the squamous epithelial lining and is frequently associated with tobacco use, alcohol consumption, dietary factors, and chronic esophageal irritation. The Role of PD-L1 in ESCC Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)
Cervical cancer, driven predominantly by persistent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in women worldwide. The identification of Programmed Death-Ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression in cervical tumors has introduced a pivotal biomarker for patient selection in immune checkpoint therapy. PD-L1 positive cervical cancer represents a biologically distinct entity with unique immune
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a clinically aggressive subtype of breast cancer lacking expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Among TNBCs, those expressing Programmed Death-Ligand 1 (PD-L1) represent a distinct immunogenic subset with unique diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Immunogenicity of PD-L1 Expressing TNBC Understanding PD-L1
Paucibacillary leprosy (PB leprosy) is a clinically and microbiologically distinct form of Hansen’s disease characterized by a limited number of skin lesions and low bacterial load. Recognizing this presentation promptly and managing it effectively is critical to halting transmission, preventing disability, and ensuring early cure. Overview of Leprosy and Its Classification Leprosy, caused by Mycobacterium
Hypoglycemia remains one of the most serious acute complications in individuals with diabetes mellitus. It not only impairs immediate physiological function but also contributes significantly to long-term morbidity and treatment non-adherence. Identifying patients at risk of hypoglycemia, understanding its mechanisms, and instituting robust prevention and management strategies are essential to safe and effective diabetes care.
Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening systemic allergic reaction requiring immediate recognition and intervention. It can develop rapidly and may result in death if not promptly treated. Identifying patients at risk of anaphylaxis, understanding the underlying triggers, and implementing preventive strategies are crucial components of comprehensive clinical care. Recognizing Patients at Risk of Anaphylaxis Common Risk Factors
Pathological gastric acid hypersecretory condition refers to an abnormal increase in gastric acid production beyond physiological needs, often leading to severe gastrointestinal complications. This condition is primarily associated with diseases like Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, and is characterized by hypergastrinemia and excessive stimulation of parietal cells. Chronic acid overproduction disrupts mucosal integrity, increases ulcer formation risk, and
Pathologic myopia, also known as degenerative or malignant myopia, is a severe form of high myopia characterized by progressive and structural changes to the posterior segment of the eye. These changes include excessive axial elongation, thinning of the retina and choroid, posterior staphyloma, and macular atrophy, all of which contribute to irreversible visual impairment. Defined
Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a congenital cardiac anomaly in which the ductus arteriosus—a fetal blood vessel connecting the pulmonary artery to the aorta—fails to close after birth. This persistent opening leads to abnormal circulation between the systemic and pulmonary arteries, resulting in increased workload on the heart and lungs. During fetal development, the ductus
Pasteurellosis is a zoonotic infection primarily caused by Pasteurella multocida, a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic coccobacillus. This bacterium is part of the normal flora in the upper respiratory tract and oral cavity of many domestic and wild animals. The infection can affect both humans and animals, presenting in a variety of forms ranging from mild localized