Transthyretin-related amyloid cardiomyopathy (ATTR-CM) is a progressive, life-threatening form of cardiac amyloidosis caused by the deposition of misfolded transthyretin (TTR) protein in the myocardium. This condition leads to restrictive cardiomyopathy, diastolic heart failure, and ultimately, significant morbidity and mortality if left untreated. ATTR-CM can occur in two main forms: Pathogenesis and Molecular Mechanism TTR is
Transthyretin familial amyloid polyneuropathy (TTR-FAP) is a rare, autosomal dominant, adult-onset neurodegenerative disease caused by mutations in the TTR (transthyretin) gene. The disease is characterized by progressive peripheral and autonomic neuropathy due to extracellular deposition of amyloid fibrils derived from misfolded TTR proteins. TTR-FAP is a form of hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis (hATTR), typically involving the
Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), also known as urothelial carcinoma, is the most prevalent type of cancer affecting the urinary tract. Originating in the urothelium—the specialized epithelial lining of the bladder, ureters, and renal pelvis—TCC accounts for over 90% of bladder cancers and a significant proportion of upper urinary tract malignancies. This malignancy demonstrates variable behavior,
Trachoma is a highly contagious, chronic eye infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. It is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide. This condition, classified as a neglected tropical disease (NTD), primarily affects populations living in impoverished, overcrowded areas with limited access to clean water and sanitation. The disease is both preventable and treatable,
Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan capable of infecting most warm-blooded animals, including humans. Although infections are frequently asymptomatic in healthy individuals, toxoplasmosis poses significant health threats to pregnant women and immunocompromised patients. Preventive measures play a pivotal role in limiting transmission and safeguarding public health, particularly in high-risk groups.
Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite of global concern. This pathogen affects both humans and warm-blooded animals and is primarily transmitted through ingestion of oocysts or tissue cysts. While the majority of infected individuals remain asymptomatic, toxoplasmosis poses severe risks to immunocompromised individuals and fetuses when transmitted during pregnancy.
Toxocariasis is a parasitic infection caused by the larvae of Toxocara species, primarily Toxocara canis (from dogs) and Toxocara cati (from cats). It is a zoonotic disease that affects humans when infective eggs are accidentally ingested. Although often asymptomatic, the condition can lead to significant complications in certain individuals, particularly children and those with compromised
Tonsillitis caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, a Group A β-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS), remains one of the most prevalent bacterial causes of acute pharyngotonsillitis. This gram-positive coccus is transmitted via respiratory droplets and exhibits high infectivity, particularly in crowded environments and among children aged 5–15 years. Upon colonization, it adheres to epithelial cells of the oropharynx using
Haemophilus influenzae is a Gram-negative coccobacillus commonly found in the upper respiratory tract. Though traditionally associated with pneumonia and meningitis, it can also colonize the oropharynx and cause tonsillopharyngitis, particularly in immunocompromised individuals, young children, and those with underlying respiratory conditions. Among its various serotypes, type b (Hib) is historically the most virulent. However, non-typeable
Tonic-clonic epilepsy, a form of generalized epilepsy, often requires adjunctive treatment approaches when first-line monotherapy fails to provide adequate seizure control. Adjunctive therapy refers to **additional interventions—pharmacologic or non-pharmacologic—**that enhance the primary treatment’s effectiveness, reduce seizure frequency, or improve quality of life in patients with drug-resistant or complex seizure profiles. Indications for Adjunctive Treatment in