Diseases

Enterobacter species, primarily Enterobacter cloacae and Enterobacter aerogenes (now Klebsiella aerogenes), are gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacilli within the Enterobacteriaceae family. While commonly colonizing the gastrointestinal tract, these organisms are opportunistic pathogens in hospitalized and immunocompromised patients. Their role in skin and skin structure infections (SSSIs) has grown due to increasing antimicrobial resistance and prevalence in

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a facultative anaerobic, gram-negative bacillus that predominantly inhabits the gastrointestinal tract. While widely recognized as a cause of urinary tract and gastrointestinal infections, E. coli has also emerged as a significant pathogen in skin and skin structure infections (SSSIs), especially among immunocompromised patients, surgical wound cases, and polymicrobial infections. Its

Clostridium species are anaerobic, spore-forming, gram-positive bacilli found ubiquitously in soil, the gastrointestinal tract, and human skin. Certain species, particularly Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium septicum, and Clostridium sordellii, are highly pathogenic and associated with severe skin and skin structure infections (SSSIs), including cellulitis, fasciitis, and life-threatening gas gangrene (Clostridial myonecrosis). These infections typically arise from contaminated

Citrobacter species, members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, are gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacilli. While commonly associated with urinary tract and gastrointestinal infections, they are increasingly implicated in nosocomial skin and skin structure infections (SSSIs), especially in immunocompromised or hospitalized individuals. Among the most clinically relevant are Citrobacter freundii and Citrobacter koseri. Pathogenesis and Virulence Factors in

Bacteroides fragilis is an obligate anaerobic, gram-negative bacillus commonly found in the gastrointestinal flora. While typically commensal, it becomes pathogenic when introduced into sterile areas such as skin and subcutaneous tissues, particularly following trauma, surgery, or mucosal barrier disruption. Among anaerobes, B. fragilis is notable for its virulence, antibiotic resistance, and role in mixed polymicrobial

Anaerobic bacteria are a significant cause of skin and skin structure infections (SSTIs), particularly in polymicrobial wounds. These pathogens thrive in environments with low oxygen tension, such as devitalized tissue, necrotic wounds, abscesses, and deep surgical sites. Understanding the role of anaerobes in SSTIs is critical for timely diagnosis and effective intervention. Common Anaerobic Pathogens

Acinetobacter species, particularly Acinetobacter baumannii, are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens implicated in a range of healthcare-associated infections. Among these, skin and skin structure infections (SSTIs) pose significant challenges due to the organism’s ability to survive in hospital environments and its high resistance to antibiotics. SSTIs caused by Acinetobacter typically affect immunocompromised patients, trauma victims, burn patients,

Sjogren’s syndrome is a chronic systemic autoimmune disorder that primarily targets the body’s exocrine glands—most notably the salivary and lacrimal glands—leading to dryness of the mouth and eyes. It can occur as a primary condition or in conjunction with other autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. Though often underdiagnosed due to its slow

Sinusitis, also known as rhinosinusitis, refers to inflammation of the mucosal lining of the paranasal sinuses. It is a common clinical condition affecting millions globally, contributing to significant healthcare burden and diminished quality of life. Sinusitis may be acute or chronic, with etiologies ranging from infectious to structural or allergic triggers. Types of Sinusitis: Acute

Sinus headache is characterized by pain and pressure in the face due to inflammation or infection of the paranasal sinuses. While commonly attributed to sinusitis, many cases initially diagnosed as sinus headaches may actually stem from migraines or other primary headache disorders. Accurate identification and targeted management are essential for long-term relief. Anatomy of the